Cecil Forsyth · section 3 of 60

Classification of instruments

for lse in a anemy disper to quite astic ad historet aspects of Instrumentation. It is, however, by no means a scientific classification.

need Instrumact, such as the Dup me or me frano exte, in which Stringed Instrument the sound is produced by means of percussion, can be classed in either the first or the last group. In the next place, certain Brass Instruments have all the characteristics of the Wood-Wind, except the actual material of which their tubes are made. For instance, the Saxophone is played with a single-beating-reed, very much like that ot the Clarinet. It differs from that instrument principally in the fact that its tube is conical, not cylindrical, and made of brass, not of wood. Then, again, we find wooden instruments whose method of toneproduction is practically the same as that used on most Brass Instruments. For instance; the obsolete Serpent was played with a big cup-mouthpiece somewhat like that of our modern "Tubas." It was, however, always made of wood.

Instruments, it is that the material of which their Egard to the Wind

very little, if anything, to do with their tone-quality. That seems to depend partly on the bore, shape, and proportions of the tube which contains the air-column, but chiefly on what we may call the "mouth- Now, it is quite obvious that it we adopt the rough classitprepared to please sun an end a nd ingone a trat be under the heading "Brass" simply because of the material of its tube. That plan has its advantages. It serves as a mnemonic, and it does not preclude a description ot the technical differences of the instrument from the "Wood-Wind" on the one hand, and from the "Brass-Wind" on the other. The student must, however, bear in mind that this is merely a matter of convenience in arrangement. It carries us no distance at all in the direction of a scientific classification.

1 Gevaert actually classes the Serpent as a Brass Instrument played with keys. 2 See below, page 286.

It need scarcely be said that History gives us very little help in this respect. Its records are too obseure and confused. We may make a guess that the Kaffir's one-stringed banjo—perhaps first suggested by the thrumming of the hand on the bow-string—was merely the hird and last addition to a musical equipment which had servea th eeds and fulfilled the aspirations of mankind for hundreds or eve:

Earlier still than this we may imagine man as just emerging trom his state of savagery, but emerging with a new and wonderful craving for something more than mere rhythm, a craving which may have been first satisfied by means of a hard blade of grass held between his two thumbs.

Finally, we may suppose a time at the beginning of things when the naked savage squatted down on his native mud, his mind half entranced, passive and vacant to every influence of the wild, but stil with a thirst in his nature which could only be quenched by the endless drum-drum-drum of his knuckles on the black earth. Beyond this we can imagine nothing but the animal.

These are, however, only guesses. The order in which we have placed them has been hotly contested, and we have nothing but probabilities on which to found our judgment. We should naturally suppose that musical art began with the least complex and most fundamental thing in human nature, the purely rhythmic. That seems fairly certain. The "percussive" is at the bottom of all things. But it is quite uncertain what we are to put next. It may be the seven oaten straws of the shepherd boy or the stretched string which found its final glory in the Apollo Citharoedus of Greece and the lovely plaything of Cremona.

Nor does it matter much. The array of instruments_ancient, mediæval, and modern—is so bewildering in its variety that historical classification would be out of the question, except in a book specially devoted to that subject. A classification, however, is necessary, and this is only to be found by neglecting the unessential in the instrument. In other words, we must leave out of account its varied forms and the materials of which it is constructed. We must strip it of the complex mass of silver-smithery and brass-smithery in which it is nowadays often embedded. We must come down to essentials.

Now, the essential thing in music is the Series of Vibrations in the air. Until these are set up we can have neither the noise caused by irregular vibrations nor the musical sound caused by regular vibrations. Fortunately, almost all orchestral instruments produce musical sounds. A lew, however, produce only noise. We must make our classification so as to include both these groups. It must be oi the simplest possible nature, and must give us only the primary methods by which the vibrations can be mechanically set up in the air. We can then subdivide these classes by indicating either fundamental distinctions in the matter of tone-production or integral differences of

' The Syrinx.

shape. In more concrete language we can show, in the Strings, the various methods by which the strings are set in motion. In the Wind, we can study the effects caused by the varying proportions of the tubes which contain the air-columns and by the different methods of tone-production.

Now all sounds, whether musical or unmusical, are merely senseimpressions caused by longitudinal air-waves? of varying shapes and sizes. These air-waves, as far as the art of orchestration goes, are set up in one of three ways:

(1) By the beating of elastic surfaces which are in contact with

the 2 By the regular breaking up of air-columns enclosed either in tubes of metal or in pipes of wood;

(3) By the setting in motion of stretched strings which are in contact with the air.

All orchestral instruments are included under this primary classification. We may label the three classes "Percussion," "Wind," and "Strings" respectively.

(1) percussion instruments.3

In the case of the first group, no further subdivision is scientifically necessary. The only subdivision that could be made would depend on the varying degree of elasticity in the beaten surfaces. • An artistic subdivision, however, will be made into

(a) Those which produce noise but not musical sounds of a definite pitch Those which produce sounds of definite musical pitch

(2) wind instruments

The second group includes what are commonly known as the Brass- and Wood-Wind. In the case of all these instruments, the aircolumn is contained either in a conical or a cylindricai tube or pipe. As we have already mentioned, this air-column has to be regularly broken up before it can produce a musical sound. It is not sufficient

ordinary meaning. The word "Bass," too, is used throughout with a capital in the sense of the instrument, the Double-Bass.

" In air and in liquids the disturbance is always lengthwise. In solids, such as a rope, we can produce a transverse wave by means of a jerk. See " Sound," by Professor Poynting, in Encyc. Brul., xi. La.

3 For further details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Per-

The whole classification in the present chapter is intended merely as an exact groundwork. The names of many instruments, especially obsolete instruments, have been omitted here as only likely to confuse the student. every case the information should be supplemented by a reference to the more detailed study prefixed to each instrumental section-"Percussion," " Brass," " Wood," and merely to blow through one end of the tube or pipe and allow the air to run out at the other. The air-column must be forced to vibrate evenly. This can be done in several ways.

First Method.

By simply blowing across the open end of the pipe, so that the breath strikes the rim. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with neither embouchure nor mouthpiece. The only representative of this subdivision is the Syrinx. No orchestral instruments are blown in this manner. The method has been found too imperfect to allow of musical development. The ancient "Syrinx"1 of the early Hellenic civilization is exactly the same instrument as the modern "Pan's Pipes" of the Punch-and-Judy showman.

Second Method.

The second method of setting the air-column in vibration is to direct a stream of wind from the lips across a cireular hole bored in the pipe. The wind-stream or "air-reed" strikes the sharp edge of the hole on the side furthest from the player's mouth. Instruments

In the third method a beak- or whistle-mouthpiece is used. The air-reed is directed through this mouthpiece against the sharp edge of a "bevel" cut in the side of the pipe. Instruments played in this way are known as Pipes with Whistle-mouthpiece. No orchestral instru- The (orchestrally) obsolete M'lageolet is the best-known member of the family. But in ancient days a great many instruments were played in this manner. The most tamiliar of these were the groups of Recorders and of Beak- or Hipple-Flutes. It must be added that the Flue-Work of the Moderr Organ comes strictly into this subdivision.

Fourth Method.

In the fourth method a flexible reed is used. This may be (a) a single-reed, or (0) a double-reed.

(a) It it is a single-reed, it may be either what is known as a "single-beating-reed" or a "free-single-reed." All orchestral singlereed instruments are blown with a beating-reed. This is so arranged that, when set in motion by the player's breath, it beats against the

Gevaert classes the Syrinx, the Bagpipes, and the Organ together, on the groun hat each consists of a number of pipes of different lengths, emitting notes of differen pitch. He calls them "Polyphonic Wind Instruments," and even suggests. that the addition of the air-reservoir in the Bagpipes was "the first improvement" on the Syrinx. The method of tone-production in the three instruments is, however, totally distinot.

2 Sometimes called Cross-Flutes or Flauti Traversi. For further details on this subdivision and on the next two subdivisions, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Wood-Wind Instruments, page 177.

"table" at the upper end of the pipe, rapidly opening and closing the aperture. The families of Clarinets and saxophones belong to this subdivision, and the subdivision is generally known as one of Pipes with reed-mouthpieces. In the case of the "reed-pipes" of the Organ the action is very much the same as that described above, but the "reed" itself is simply a strip of flexible metal.

The "free-single-reed" is not used in any orchestral instrument. In tact, the only instrument in which it has been put to practical use is the Harmonium. In this instrument the metal "reeds" are "set" in a series of apertures into which they just fit. Sufficient treedom is however, leit for them to vibrate to and fro. The amount of "play" is so adjusted that, while the reed can actually vibrate, it practically closes and opens the aperture at each vibration. It is thus able to communicate the vibratory motion to the enclosed air-space.!

In the ancient Regal—a small "Positive" as opposed to a "Portative" Organ-the stops were originally reed-stops. The reeds employed were much like those of the Clarinet and Saxophone,

from the "free-single-reeds" of the Harmonium."

(b) In the case of the double-reed, two flexible pieces of "cane" are bound vis-d-vis in this shape ().. The aperture between the upperends of the two "canes" is extremely small. The player takes the double, fordeet to his lip at dh thatpressue not his lips and breath, forces it to vibrate. between the two "canes" is alternately opened and closed. This, the second section of the subdivision, Pipes with reed-mouthpieces, is represented by the ancient Schalmeys and Pommers and the modern Oboe and Bassoon families.

The two kinds of Wood-Wind instrument with which we have been dealing, viz. those played with single-beating-reeds and those played with double-reeds, may be conveniently distinguished according to the bore of their pipes, as

(a) Cylindrical pipes...(The single-beating-reed Clarinet group).

(b) Conical pipes........ (The double-reed Oboe and Bassoon group).

This difference in the proportions of the pipes is of fundamental importance in the technique of the reed instruments. The matter will be explained more tully in a later portion of the book, but meanwhile it may be briefly stated that in (a), cylindrica. pipes, the "fundamenta

' A special Percussion apparatus is also used in the Harmonium to remedy its slowness of speed. At the moment that the air-stream is directed on to the reed a tiny hammer taps it into action.

In this instru- The air-space inside the mouth is the resonating-cavity. The shape and size of this cavity are altered by the muscles of the cheeks o as to reinforce the various Harmonies already present in the vibrating metal-tongue. A certain additional prominence can thus be given to any desired note in the Harmonic Series.

• See page 178.

scale" can be reproduced (or "overblown") by the player at the interval of a twelfth higher. In (b), conical pipes, the "fundamental scale" can be reproduced at an interval of an octave higher. This reproduction is effected by means of an increased pressure of the lips and breath, helped in some cases by the opening of certain holes specially bored for that purpose in the pipe itself

it is important to notice that the Saxophones, though akin to the Clarinets in that they both make use of single-beating-reeds, are not cylindrical, but conical instruments. Their technique, therefore, as opposed to their tone-production, is totally distinct from that of the Clarinets. A correct classification, according to mere tone-production, would group the following instruments together:

2) ogle-eating reed.. The Clarinets base Saxophones.

......The Oboes and Bassoons.

A much more scientific classification would, however, be based on the fundamental nature of the instruments; that is to say, on the shapes of their pipes and tubes. We should then group them as follows:

(1) Cylindrical pipes with single-beating-reeds... The Clarnet tamily.

The Saxophone family. (2) Conical pipes - with single-beating-reeds.

(3) Conical pipes with double-reeds... The Oboe and Bassoon

families.

Before passing on to the description of the fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration, the student should notice that we have already included aLL the methods employed by the modern Wood-Wind. Two obsolete instruments, however, the Zinke (or Cornet à bouquin) and the Serpent, must be mentioned. The first of these was used as the ordinary treble of the Trombone family. It was originally made, as its French name suggests, of a ram's horn. Alterwards other materials, such as ivory, bone, and wood, were employed. The serpent, again, was usually associated with the Brass It was, however, actually made of wood. Both these instruments had a conical-bore and their scales were produced by means of holes pierced laterally. The method of tone-production was, however, quite distinct from that of any Wood-Wind instrument which we have hitherto described. It was, in fact, the cup-mouthpiecesystem tamiliar to us to-day through its universal use on all the heavy Valved-Brass. The student must, however, remember that this association of the cup-mouthpiece with the heavy Brass is, so to speak, only an accident. As we have already pointed out, the material of which the tube is constructed matters very little. The method of tone-production is of the first importance.

1 The Saxophones are actually made of brass. The words "tube" and "pipe" are used consistently to distinguish the Brass- from the Wood-Wind. This is, however, merely a mnemonic. It has no importance as a scientific distinction. As we have already said, the material of the tube or pipe is of no consequence.

Fifth Method.

The fifth method by which the air-column can be set in vibration is, as we have stated, the method now employed by all the Orchestral and Military Brass. A mouthpiece-almost always of metal'-is placed at the upper end of the tube. This mouthpiece is either cupshaped, funnel shaped, or a mixture of the two. The player's lips stretch across the mouthpiece and themselves act as the vibrating reeds. The shape of the mouthpiece, especially the shape of its lower portion, is the main determining factor in the tone-quality of the instrument? "The shallower the cup the more brilliant the tone." 3 The shallow "cup" is characteristic of the frumpet: the broad deep "cup" of the modern " Tubas." Un the other hand, the funnel-shaped mouthpiece is used for the Horns. To this they owe their warmer and less incisive tone-colour. A hybrid cup-and-funnel-shaped mouthpiece is used for the Bugle.

The group which employs this, the fifth method of tone-production, includes all the Brass, ancient as well as modern, as well as the obsolete Zinke and the Serpent. It might of course be subdivided according to the shape of mouthpiece used. Such a subdivision, however, would be like that of the Single-and Double-Reeds merely one of tone-colour. It is better, as in the former case, to base the subdivision on the integral characteristics of the tubes themselves. As these tubes, whether they are conical or cylindrical, all produce the same series of notes,* we can make our subdivision depend solely on the natural methods of each instrument for altering the length of its air-column. The subdivision will then take the following form:

(1) Tubes of fixed length, which can therefore only produce single series of notes at a time. The best examples are the Natural Trumpet, the Natural Horn, and the Military Bugle.S

(2) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of holes pierced laterally. The best examples are the Keyed-Bugle, the family of Ophicleides, and the Russian Bassoon.® All of these instruments were made of brass and are now obsolete.

(3) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of Valves, or Pistons. The best examples are the Valve- Trumpets, the Cornets, the Valve-Horns, the Saxhorns, the Flügelhorns, the Valve-Trombones, and the modern "Tubas."" As will be

Ivory and bone were often used. Even at the present-day ivory mouthpieces are occasionally employed by Tuba-players.

* See pages 72-3. 3 Gevaert. " See page 90 for fuller details on this point.

& For fuller details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Brass Instruments.

6 The Russian Bassoon and the Bass-Hor were transition-instruments between the Serpent and the Ophicleides.

"For a description of the so-called "Wagner Tubas" see page 151 et segg.

explained later, all these instruments are again divisible into what are called "Whole-tube" and "Half-tube" instruments.

(4) Tubes in which the length of the air-column is varied by means of slides. "The only instruments of this subdivision in general use are the 1rombones.

(3) stringed instruments

We now come to the third group of instruments in our elementary classification. This is the group which sets up vibrations in the air by means of stretched strings. Orchestrally, it is the most complex group and the one that demands the greatest attention from the student. However, from our present purely scientific point of view, it is remarkably simple, and may be easily explained in a tew sentences. In every case the stretched strings are of course in contact with the air. They cannot set the air in vibration until they themselves are first put in motion. The only subdivision possible is therefore based the methods by which the player excites the strings. These methods are three in number.

First Method.

By plucking. In these instruments either the finger is used (as in the Harp or Guitar), or a plectrum (as in the Mandoline)."

Second Method.

By striking. In these instruments a hammer, or a series of hammers, is employed. The Dulcimer and the Pianoforte are the most familiar examples of this method.

Third Method.

By contact with a prepared moving surface. In these instruments either a horse-hair bow is used (as in the Violin family), or a wheeland-handle mechanism (as in the ancient Organistrum and the modern Hurdy-Gurdy).

We shall now take the four groups of orchestral instruments, beginning with the simplest, the «Percussion," and going on through "Brass" and the "Wood-Wind" to the most complex, the "Strings" A short preliminary chapter of a general character will be sio be traced pain and over lay elite tea a one. sible, be traced. in the case of the Brass instruments and the Violin tamily. For, though there are exceptions in the general technical development of both these Instrumental groups, these•exceptions can easily be explained and brought into line with the rest of the history. For instance, in the "Brass" the general course of progress has been from the Natural outdoor instrument through the era of "crooks" to the

1 See page 86.

" For further details, see the preliminary matter before the section devoted to Stringed Instruments, page 290.

period of "valves." The Trombone family is the chief exception. But Instruments is be just the sam physical alas as the othe ras Instruments " The slide mechanism is their main differentiating feature. In a preliminary sketch, therefore, they can quite well be treated in company with the Trumpets and Horns.

In the Wood-Wind department, it is scarcely possible to group together these details of technical development. The individual instruments differ so much in the shapes of their pipes and their methods of tone-production that it is better to deal with these points under each instrumental heading:

In any case, only a very brief historical sketch is given. Just sufficient information is supplied to enable the student to understand clearly the origin of the instrument and the principal changes which it has undergone in construction and treatment. Composers too-often look upon orchestral instruments as cleverly manufactured toys springing from nowhere. Most of these instruments, however, have a very respectable family bistory. And this family history strument ot interest, because, in almost every case, the modern under all its paraphernalia of rings, bolts, and bars, preserves intact the distinctive characteristics of its ancient progenitor. A seventeenth century Horn-player, if we could resuscitate him, would probably be considerably astonished at the Horn-playing which he would hear at a present-day Symphony-concert. But it he were a good Horn-player, it would not be many weeks before he would be quite competent to "make one" in the orchestral quartet.

the separate instrumental headings, such as "Violin," Under "Oboe," and so on, the student will find precise technical details and examples of the orchestral use of the instrument. The technical details, especially in the case of shakes and tremolos, have been presented within the smallest possible space. When printed in extenso, they are often enough to make a fair-sized book. Whenever possible,

Some discretion has been used both in quoting and in compressing modern Full Scores. These, again, take up an enormous amount of As a rule unessential parts of the Score have been omitted, but these omissions are always clearly pointed out, either in the text or in' a foot-note. A certain number of examples have to be selected solely to illustrate the technical capabilities and limitations of the variou instruments. But in general an eye has been kept on their artistic value, from the point of view of Scoring. No apology need be made .. for referring over and over again to some of these quotations.